Effect of Greywater on Plant Growth

Effect of Greywater on Plant Growth Water availability in South Africa is integral to the economy, but South Africa is a water scarce nation. An alternate solution for household waste water, excluding toilet waste commonly known as greywater is to use it for irrigation in rural community gardens. This is likely to decrease the stress on the current potable water supply and simultaneously improve food security. Indigenous African leafy vegetables are a staple diet throughout Africa. A viability trial highlighted three out of six African leafy vegetable species; Amaranthus terere, Corchorus olitorius and Cloeme gynandra. Two treatments were used as suitable for trials of germination and growth under irrigation of tap water and greywater. Greywater treatments throughout the species decreased germination and seedling height was diminished. A. terere was the most robust to both the treatments as well as weather variability. Continuous investigation is needed to address the water scarcity and subsequent food insecurity. Keywords: greywater, irrigation trial, African leafy vegetables, germination and growth Introduction Water scarcity in South Africa is an issue that requires robust discussion and debate. If not addressed, it is likely to have serious consequences for both economic growth and the countrys population (Momba et al., 2006). Agricultural industry constitutes 12% of South Africas GDP. Even though this sector is decreasing, it is still water intensive. Without aviable water source, economic input in this sector is likely to have ramifications on the countrys health (Morel and Diener, 2006). Statistics show 65% of the country receives less than 500mm of rainfall per annum (Schulze, 1997). The level of water insecurity places pressure on the existing water resource for irrigation. This shortage is felt disproportionally by small-scale subsistence farmers and community gardeners. South Africa is one of twelve countries that have safe drinking in the world and is ranked third in this group. However, there are many rural communities with under-developed water supply systems or these communities lack access to potable water sources (Momba et al., 2006 and Mackintosh and Colvin, 2002). While the need is great these small communities, they account a small percentage of the customer base. This then fuels the vicious cycle of supply and demand. As a result alternative water sources need to be acquired to satisfy the demand. Grey water is likely to be a viable prospect to efficiently mitigate this deficiency (Alcamo et al., 2000). It consists of domestic waste water excluding toilet waste. The use of potable water is not needed for all consumptive practices, example irrigation (Alfiya et al., 2011). The main objective of finding alternative and sustainable water usage is to attain water security. Water insecurity is highly interlinked with food insecurity (Al-Jayyousi, 2002 and Blaine, 2012). Thus the use of greywater for small scale agriculture has the potential to address both water insecurity and food insecurity (Rodda et al., 2011). They are most usually harvested from the wild. This practice is a threat to the continued survival of these plants Cultivating African leafy vegetables would also address their conservation need (Momba et al., 2006). Indigenous African leafy vegetables are a part of the staple diet in South Africa (Momba et al., 2006). The challenge is to continue production of these vegetables without jeopardizing potable water supplies, but by utilizing alternate water source such as grey water as a means of irrigation. The concept of grey water had both advantages and disadvantages (Rodda et al., 2011). Reducing stress on the potable supply is a main benefit but there are drawbacks to using waste material to grow plants, households have different proportions of additives, thus may effect plant growth (Roesner et al., 2006). Whereas the risks are divided into three main categories; possible detrimental effects on the environment which decreases the ability for soil to provide plant growth, subsequent effects on plant growth and yield, and risk to human health (Rodda et al., 2011). The aim of this study was to determine whether irrigation with grey water had an effect on seed germination and seedling growth, and whether this effect differed with detergent formulation. The objective was to assess if grey water can replace potable water for irrigation of indigenous plants. It was predicted that seedlings under tap water-irrigated conditions would have a greater growth rate than under greywater conditions. It was further predicted that rate of germination would not be affected by the grey water. Materials and methods This investigation took place in 2 parts. This first was to assess the viability of the seeds and to select the species for further investigation. In the second, seed germination and seedling growth under grey water and tap water treatments irrigation were evaluated. Germination trials Germination trials were performed in the laboratory in the Biology Building at UKZN (Westville Campus). An initial experiment was conducted with six species (Solanum nigrum, Amarathus terere, Corchorus olitorius, Solanum villosum, Amarathus dubois and Cloeme gynandra). Germination was tested. The most viable 3 were chosen to determine the germinability of the three selected species of African leafy vegetables. Only viability was tested for as this was pertinent to the success of the actual trial. The viability criteria were the speed at which germination took place. This indicated the viability of the seeds and validates the ability to germinate under controlled conditions. The germination viability trial was conducted in the laboratory. Each of the three species (Cloeme gynandra; Amaranthus terere; Cochorus olitorius) had six replicates of ten seeds each. Seeds were placed randomly on filter paper in a Petri dish and a smaller piece of filter paper was placed over. They were watered with deionised water until moist. An equal number of seeds were placed under illuminated and dark conditions. These were then monitored every 24 hours and replenished with deionised water as necessary. Once germination had occurred and the radicle was greater than 1 cm, seedlings were moved to the left side of the Petri dish. This prevented recounting and recording. Percentage germination was recorded. Description of Species The initial viability trial revealed that the following three Kenyan species were the most viable. C. gynandra is commonly known as spider plant. It is used as a component of a high fibre diet and, from indigenous knowledge, has medicinal properties (Mauyo et al., 2008). A. terere is another widely grown consumable in East Africa (Nabulo et al., 2011). The final species used was Corchorus olitorius, Jews mallow, a dark green leafy vegetable high in protein which is consumed in most African communities. Irrigation Trial Trails of irrigation with greywater and tap water were then performed in the Biology greenhouse at UKZN (Westville campus). Synthetic greywater (10 l) was made up freshly weekly (Table 1). It was stored in the cold storage to impede bacterial and algal growth. Detergent products used to generate the greywater were representative of solid or powder detergent products typically used in lower income households, which are those most likely to benefit from the use of greywater for irrigation of subsistence crops. The flour, nutrient broth and cooking oil were used to represent carbohydrates, salts and proteins, and greases respectively in the synthetic greywater. Seedling trays (6) were filled with Berea red soil. For three days prior to planting, the seedling trays were watered with tap water and greywater respectively until they were saturated to field capacity. The seeds were then planted into seedling trays. Species were randomized per tray. Sixty seeds of each species were watered with tap water and the other sixty seedlings were watered with the synthetic grey water. For the first 14 days, trays were watered every 24 hours. Each seed was hydrated with 0.25 ml of either synthetic grey water or tap water. Thereafter, trays were watered every second day for the remainder of the trial. The experiment was repeated three time under three treatment groups; the first treatment group was tap water for germination and subsequent growth, tap water for germination and then greywater for growth and the final treatment of grey water throughout the lifespan of the plants. Height was measured weekly. Productivity was measured by destructive harvesting (dry mass production) at end of experiment. However plant height was gauged growth during the experiment. On two occasions there was death of seedlings due to severe weather conditions and this restricted the growth period. Since this investigation was over a short time span. The weather impacted the progress of experiment. Weather variability such as intense heat, humidity and berg winds, and strong rains affected the seedlings. Even though they were protected in the shade house, the extreme elements could have inhibited their germination and growth. Statistical Analysis The data were analyzed using SSPS version 19. Two sets of statistical analyses were performed. The first test was to show the difference between greywater and tap water in terms of growth (height). A Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was performed to test for normality. Levenes test for Equality of Variances was performed, the assumption homoscedasticity was violated but all other assumptions were satisfied. Since the data was not normally distributed a more robust Mann-Whitney U test was done, to evaluate the differences in germination for each species under the two conditions (greywater-irrigated and tap water-irrigated). An excel graph was then used to show the rate at which the all three species comparatively germinated in terms of the two treatments (greywater-irrigated and tap water-irrigated). Results Seed germination and seedling growth are gauged by the germination totality and seedling height measured weekly. Initial germination was 70% in tap water-irrigated seeds whereas as 45% in greywater-irrigated seeds. Figure 1 shows the totality of germinated seeds present over time for each of the three species. A. terere and C. olitorius had the highest totality under controlled laboratory conditions; C. gynandra seeds had the lowest survival percentage >40%. A. terere has the highest standard deviation, indicating the data is wide spread. Figure 2 the initial and final number of seedlings present per species and the treatment. Co. olitorius under the grey water treatment had the least number of seedlings that survived. This species also had the greatest difference between the treatments. A. terere had the greatest number of individuals that survived in both the treatments. The results of the Mann-Whitney U test rejected the H0 that there will be no difference between the two treatments, there is a significant difference between height of the three species per treatment. Therefore the distributions of height for each species across the treatments are different. Plant height differed significantly among the treatment (p < 0.05). Greywater -irrigated seedlings consistently attained a lesser height than tap water-irrigated seedlings across all species (Figure 3). Figures 3 indicate the difference in height between tap water irrigated and greywater-irrigated plants for each species. The standard deviation is shown as an error bar. Seedling height 18days after germination was lower in grey-water irrigated plants than in tap water-irrigated plants for all 3 species. A. terere had the largest standard deviation of tap water-irrigation with 10.197 whereas the greywater-irrigation treatment was 9.1197. C. olitorius which had a visibly lower standard deviation than A. terere tap water-irrigated treatment was 5.753186 and the greywater-irrigated treatment was 1.558646. Finally with the lowest standard deviation, C. gynandra tap water-irrigated treatment was 0.588196 and the greywater-irrigated treatment was 0.316563. C. olitorius had the greatest discrepancy for tap water-irrigated and greywater-irrigated. Discussion and Conclusion Africa, according to Morel and Diener (2006) is known as a water insecure continent. As adjustments are discussed on the efficient use of potable water, reusing waste water is seen as a possible solution. Alternative irrigation methods are needed for progress. Greywater is a possible alternative water source, however contrasting evidence in Morel and Diener (2006) indicates that the potential drawbacks, even though greywater is less contaminated than other waste water. Untreated greywater contains solid particles, pathogens, grease and oils, salts, and chemicals. According to Rodda et al. (2011) these impurities could have negative effects on soil quality, ground water supply and human health. With such strong findings there are studies that have shown greywater reuse as a viable alternative to 100% potable water. Greywater has been implemented a cost-effective means to reduce domestic water levels. According to Morel and Diener (2006) greywater reuse produced average yield, with decrease in water usage and fertilizer requirements. In both Cyprus and Israel domestic water used was reduced by effective greywater management schemes (Moral and Diener, 2006). In this study, greywater-irrigated seeds and plants consistently yielded poorer germination (Figure 1 and 2) and growth (Figure 3) of three species of African leafy vegetables. The germination trial (Figure1) yielded a higher percentage of germinated seeds than the outdoor irrigation trial. This is possibly due to the controlled, pathogen-free environment in the laboratory. Cited by Pinto (2010) experiment alternate watering regimes of potable water and greywater resulted in the growth of the plants very similar to 100% potable water. This is a means to mitigate the soil health risks related with greywater reuse. Even though Pinto (2010) had no significant change of plant biomass in the control and treatment, it differed in this investigation. Figure 2 indicates that A. terere were unable to acquire a high germination percentage in grey-water irrigated treatments but acquired the highest tap water-irrigated germination percentage. Hence the treatment of greywater-irrigated seeds affected their ability to germinate, with initial germination at 70% in tapwater-irrigated seedlings whereas as 45% in greywater-irrigated seedlings. The best germination in greywater-irrigation was observed by A. terere, possibly reflecting its resilience under a wide range of conditions as mentioned by Nabulo et al. (2011). Cl. gynandra had an average of  ±7% greater tapwater-irrigated seedling germination than greywater- irrigated seedling germination. Conversely Co.olitorius had the greatest variability between tapwater-irrigated seedling germination than greywater- irrigated seedling germination. Since a significant difference was calculated, greywater does effect the germination of seeds and subsequently the amount of germinated seeds able to grow. A possible factor in poor survival of both tap water- and greywater-irrigated seedlings, in addition to weather conditions, is nutrient depletion. Berea red sand had a composition of 62.68% SiO2 which is generally used and is nutrient poor (Okonta and Manciya, 2010) Since a watering regime observed, nutrients to the plant was not considered. Other nutrients found in soil are needed for healthy growth. Seedling trays were used to separate species and keep difference treatment uncontaminated but after the 2 week germination period, nutrients are need for plant growth. Each seed had  ± 18cm2 of Berea red soil, this soil consists of 12-64% and 15-57% of fine and medium sand respectively (Hamel, 2006). Water holding capacity of the soil is thus diminished due to porosity. This could have exacerbated the depletion of nutrients in the volume of sand thus leading to their inability to withstand weather variability. Soapy residue may have contributed to poor performance of the greywater-irrigated seeds and seedlings. Mataix-Solera et al. (2011) point out that the detergents in greywater cause soil water repellency of soil. It can be argued that greywater might be an interim solution, but posed long-term effects that might not be easily remedied. Soapy soil could cause hydrophobic soil properties which have poor water hold capacity. This could have hampered the germinated seeds shoot from emerging through the soil due to the coagulated surface. An alternate solution can be found according to Pinto (2010), where altering water regimes between grey water and potable resembled the results observes in 100% potable water. The pH levels remains similar between water regimes. In household greywater system the proposal ceramic pot filter is used this eradicates the large particles. Another caveat of this investigation is changing the watering regime. Initially seeds are watered every day until germination which is  ± 10days and then changed to every alternate day. Since plants are sensitive to change, the watering regime should be carefully monitored in conjunction with weather patterns. This ensures a smooth transition for the seedlings. According to Roesner et al. (2006) household waste contains 2500-5000 chemicals which if used as greywater could cause coagulation at the soil surface. More organic products could be used to reduce the amount of chemicals in the greywater (Al-Jayyousi, 2002). Pre-treatment of greywater and limiting its used only to salt-tolerant crops could allow wide use of greywater for irrigation (Al-Jayyousi, 2002). In this investigation germination of all three species was diminished under greywater-irrigated conditions, this being said with calculated changes to the experiment, greywater could possibly be a viable option in the future. An observation was made during the experiment, refer to appendix image 1 and 2 of A. terere, the leaf colour in greywater-irrigated treatment was lighter than the tap water-irrigated treatment. Image 3 and 4 also exhibit the same phenomenon in C. gynandra. Cultivation in Jordan of different crops yielded a similar observation, this was attributed to the solids and increased salinity of the greywater (Al-Jayyousi, 2002). Although the results obtained conclusively show that greywater does effect the both the germinability of the seeds and subsequent growth. It is recommended that seeds should not be irrigated with grey water, possibly increasing the percentage of seed germination. Organizations such as the Water research council are investigating innovative ideas to alleviate the pressure on South Africas stressed water system. Primary greywater systems in community gardens should be not be implement immediately rather as in Pinto et al. (2010) a combination of greywater and tap water should be used. This will relieve the possibility of failing crops. Social and environmental sustainability are interlinked which fuels the economy. Water is an integral part life and therefore should be continuously well-managed. Further research is necessary as water scarcity and availability still threatens food security around Africa.

Lead In Drinking Water

Lead is a naturally occurring element present in the earth's crust. It is one of the most harmful environmental pollutants.   It has become difficult to control because of its wide usage. Over the years it is being used in gasoline, house paint and plumbing fixtures. Lead shows adverse effects when it builds up in the body. There are many ways in which humans are exposed to lead: through deteriorating paint, household dust, bare soil, air, drinking water, food, ceramics, home remedies, hair dyes and other cosmetics.Much of this lead is of microscopic size, invisible to the naked eye. In 1978, the federal government banned lead-based paint from housing. Though the amount of lead that is released into the environment each year has been greatly reduced by less use of leaded gas, starting in the mid-70s. Laws forbidding use of lead in house paint (1978) and lead in plumbing solder (1986) have helped as well. Still, lead can be a problem, especially in older homes.As a highly toxic meta l contaminant in drinking water, with public health threat lead received attention over the years. However, the old lead painted houses are the primary source of lead contamination. Water has a combination of things in it, when it reaches home for household purposes. According to U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), in the United States 1 out of every 11 children has a dangerous level of lead in the bloodstream. The elevated blood-lead levels can be due to the drinking water contaminated with lead, in spite of water being the rare primary source.Although there is no â€Å"safe† level of lead in water, the EPA has estimated that on average up to 20% of a child's total lead exposure can potentially be attributed to lead-contaminated water. Lead poisoning is dangerous for anyone of any age, but children are particularly vulnerable because of  the effects of lead poisoning on development. According to EPA, lead dosage that would have little effect on an adult can harm a small child.   Lead in drinking water can be a problem for infants whose diet consists of liquids-such as baby formula and juices mixed with water. Lead can be easily and more rapidly absorbed by children compared to the adults.Lead can cause a variety of adverse health effects when people are exposed to it at levels above the action level even for relatively short periods of time. The effects are the same whether it is breathed or swallowed. Very low levels of lead poisoning can cause reduced IQs‚ learning disabilities and behavioral problems such as hypertension and reduced attention span in children, and often these effects are life long and irreversible. Pregnant women and young children are at the greatest risk even with short-term, low level exposures. Overexposure to lead over time can have severe health effects that can last a lifetime.   Lead poisoning can cause damage to brain, kidneys, nervous system, and red blood cells. Children's brains and nervous systems ar e more sensitive to the damaging effects of lead, so they can have behavior and learning problems (such as hyperactivity), damage to the brain and nervous system, slowed growth, hearing problems and headaches.Because children are most vulnerable to adverse health effects from lead exposure, the adequacy of controls over lead in water supplies serving schools and child care facilities is particularly important. In adults it can cause reproductive problems, high blood pressure, digestive problems, nerve disorders, memory and concentration problems, muscle and joint pain.The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's (CDC), Lead Poisoning Prevention Program (LPPP) in conjunction with the Office of Refugee Resettlement developed the Lead Poisoning Prevention in Newly Arrived Refugee Children tool kit in response to the increasing number of refugee children entering in the United States and subsequently developing elevated blood lead levels. CDC’s Childhood Lead Poisoning Preven tion Program is committed to the Healthy People goal of eliminating elevated blood lead levels in children by 2010. CDC continues to assist state and local childhood lead poisoning prevention programs, to provide a scientific basis for policy decisions, and to ensure that health issues are addressed in decisions about housing and the environment.Other studies have shown that the intrusion of lead into the lens of the eye may cause protein conformational changes that decrease lens transparency. Now NIEHS grantee Howard Hu and colleagues at Harvard University have uncovered what could be another adverse health effect with global implications: cataracts. The researchers found that participants with high tibial lead were more than 2.5 times as likely to develop cataracts as men with low tibial lead (bone lead is a measure of long-term lead exposure). Blood lead levels, which are more indicative of short-term lead exposure, were not significantly associated with increased risk of catarac t development.The contamination occurs when the water is once out from the treatment plants to the individual residences.   The service lines that direct the water, certain types of plumbing materials, such as lead pipes, lead solder, brass faucets and some water meter components are responsible for the leaching of lead into drinking water. Hot water can cause the lead to leach out from lead-soldered copper pipes. The longer that water stays in pipes, the greater the exposure to lead.  Stray electrical currents from improperly grounded electrical outlets or equipment also may increase the level of lead in drinking water.Though the, Congress in1986 banned the use of solder containing more that 0.2% lead and restricted the lead content of faucets, pipes, and other plumbing materials the risk of lead contamination is not completely removed as â€Å"lead-free† plumbing may contain up to 8 percent lead. Lead in the air comes from industrial emissions. Lead deposits in soils ar ound roadways and streets from past emissions by automobiles using leaded gas, together with paint chips and lead paint dust. Lead may be found in some imported candies, medicines, dishes, toys, jewelry, and plastics.Under Safe Drinking Water Act law passed by Congress in 1974, EPA determined safe levels of chemicals in drinking water which do or may cause health problems. These non-enforceable levels, based solely on possible health risks and exposure, are called Maximum Contaminant Level Goals. The MCLG for lead has been set at zero because EPA believes this level of protection would not cause any of the potential health problemsResponsibility for ensuring safe drinking water is shared by EPA, the states, and, most importantly, local water systems. In general, EPA sets standards to protect drinking water quality and to ensure the proper operation and maintenance of public water systems.   EPA also oversees state implementation of the Safe Drinking Water Act and applicable regula tions where states have assumed primary responsibility for enforcement.The states ensure that local water systems meet EPA and state requirements, provide technical assistance, and take enforcement action, as necessary. In addition, the states collect information on the results of drinking water monitoring, among other things, and report the information to EPA. At the local level, public water systems operate and maintain their facilities in accordance with federal and state requirements, periodically test the drinking water to ensure that it meets quality standards, install needed treatments, and report required information to the states.Water system cannot directly detect and remove the lead contamination in drinking water as corrosion occurs in household lead pipes. To control lead and copper in drinking water, EPA implemented a regulation known as LCR (Lead and Copper Rule) or 1991 Rule in July 1991. The main aim of this program is to monitor the drinking water for the contamina tion and to educate the public to take precautions to protect their health when lead concentration (15 ppb) and copper concentration (0. 3 ppm) in water exceed their action level.The LCR even replace lead service lines used to carry water from the street to the home when elevated lead levels are continued even after anti-corrosion treatment. It is compulsory that that all public water supplies should abide these regulations to meet National Primary Drinking Water Regulations. EPA regulations require that child care centers operating their own water supplies test all drinking outlets for lead. The Maximum Contaminant Level Goal for lead is 0 ppb, the EPA action level for lead in drinking water is 15 ppb. GSA requires that corrective actions be taken when lead concentrations in drinking water exceed the 15 ppb action level.  EPA played a major key role in distributing a list of banned coolers and publishing and distributing guidance on detecting and remediating lead contamination in school drinking water supplies when the Congress banned the manufacture and sale of water coolers that were not lead-free under the Lead Contamination Control Act of 1988. In addition to it EPA ordered required states to establish programs to assist local agencies in testing and correcting for lead in water supplies in schools and child care facilities.In March 2005, EPA announced a Drinking Water Lead Reduction Plan to improve and clarify specific areas of the rule and the agency’s guidance materials. EPA proposed regulatory changes to the LCR in the following areas:Treatment Processes: To require that utilities notify states prior to changes in treatment so that states can provide direction or require additional monitoring. EPA will also revise existing guidance to help utilities maintain corrosion control while making treatment changes. Customer Awareness: To require that water utilities notify occupants of the results of any testing that occurs within a home or facility. EPA will also seek changes to allow states and utilities to provide customers with utility-specific advice on tap flushing to reduce lead levels.Lead Service Line Management: To ensure that service lines that test below the action level are re-evaluated after any major changes to treatment which could affect corrosion control.Lead in Schools: The agency will update and expand 1994 guidance on testing for lead in school drinking water. EPA will emphasize partnerships with other federal agencies, utilities and schools to protect children from lead in drinking water.Although EPA in cooperation with NSF International, state, and water industry officials succeeded in reducing lead levels by testing the water by lead rule. According to NSF, the extent to which lead leaches from products containing lead is not directly proportional to the level of lead used in any one alloy contained in the product. NSF identified several factors that contribute to the level of leaching, including the cor rosiveness of the water, lead content, the extent of the leaded surface area, and the process used to manufacture the product.Lead contamination in water can not be detected normally because one cannot see, taste, or smell lead dissolved in water, Individuals who suspect the contamination of lead in their house, the only way to be sure of the amount of lead in their household water is to have it tested by a certified lab where water will be analyzed using the EPA's sampling and analysis procedures. While collecting water for analysis one should be sure to have a â€Å"first draw sample and a â€Å"fully flushed† sample. The first draw sample should be collected after water has sat undisturbed for at least six hours. The first draw sample should have the highest level of lead.The fully flushed sample should be collected after the water has been running from the tap for several minutes, at least until the water becomes noticeably cooler. This two-sample procedure indicates whe ther flushing the tap can reduce the lead to safe levels. Water testing is especially important for apartment dwellers, because flushing may not be effective in high-rise buildings with lead-soldered central piping.According to the Toxics Release Inventory, from 1987 to 1993 a total of nearly 144 million lbs of lead compounds were released to land and water by lead and copper smelting industries. When released to land, lead binds to soils and does not migrate to ground water. In water, it binds to sediments. It does not accumulate in fish, but does in some shellfish, such as musselsOne can temporarily reduce lead hazards by taking actions like repairing damaged painted surfaces and planting grass to cover soil with high lead levels. Appropriate precautions should be taken to prevent the contamination using specialized cleaning techniques that are effective in removing lead-contaminated dust. Cleaning should be done time to time in addition to a final cleanup at the end of the job. T hese actions (called â€Å"interim controls†) are not permanent solutions and will not eliminate all risks of exposure.Peeling, chipping, chalking, or cracking lead-based paint is a hazard and needs immediate attention Lead from paint chips, and lead dust, both cause serious hazards. Lead dust can form when lead-based paint is dry scraped, dry sanded, or heated. Dust also forms when painted surfaces bump or rub together. Lead chips and dust can get on surfaces and objects that people touch. Settled lead dust can reenter the air when people vacuum, sweep, or walk through it.There are many ways to reduce lead exposure at home specially for children. Precautions should be taken to keep children away from chipping, peeling and flaking paint. Children should wash their hands before meals, snacks, nap time and bedtime and the areas where children play as dust-free as possible. Care should be taken to give clean pacifiers for infants to suck. Pacifiers often and pin them on a short ribbon to the child's shirt and children’s clothes clean by changing frequently. Stuffed animals and toys should be washed regularly.Lead contaminated water can be avoided to some extent by following simple measures. Hard water can actually offer some protection against lead contamination because mineral build-up on the inside of pipes reduces contact between water and the lead or solder.  Use only lead-free materials in all plumbing repairs or new faucets and pipes. Homes with plastic drinking water lines, which are glued rather than soldered, should not have problems with lead contamination from pipes. Before using water for drinking or cooking, run the cold water for a minute until it is as cold as it can get.   This will flush out the water that has been sitting around for awhile so lead concentration won't be as high.   Also, use only cold water for drinking and cooking since hot water dissolves lead more quickly than cold water.Some precaution can be taken to prev ent ourselves from continuous exposure. When renovating homes, Do not use a belt-sander, propane torch, heat gun, dry scraper, or dry sandpaper to remove lead-based paint. These actions create large amounts of lead dust and fumes. Federal law requires that contractors provide lead information to residents before renovating pre-1978 housing. Many houses and apartments built before 1978 have paint that contains lead (called lead-based paint). Landlords have to disclose known information on lead-based paint and lead-based paint hazards before leases take effect.Some of the activities that should be done to prevent lead contamination are:Create aerator (screen) cleaning maintenance schedule and clean debris from all accessible aerators frequently. Use only cold water for food and beverage preparation as hot will dissolve lead more quickly. Instruct the users to run the water before drinking. Regularly flush the piping system in the building. The degree to which flushing helps reduce lea d levels can also vary depending upon the age and condition of the plumbing and the corrosiveness of the water.Bottled water can be an expensive alternative but might be warranted if you expect or are aware of widespread contamination and flushing is not an option. If you use bottled water, be aware that it is not regulated by EPA but rather by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA).Reverse osmosis units are commercially available and can be effective in removing lead. Since these devices also tend to make the water corrosive, they should only be used when placed at water outlets. Electrical current may accelerate the corrosion of lead in piping materials. Existing wires already grounded to the water pipes can possibly be removed by a qualified electrician, and replaced by an alternative grounding system.Apart from the efforts of EPA and associated bodies, as general public we too have some responsibility in educating people towards the adverse effects of the lead contaminated water . We should discourage people from using materials that induce lead into the environment. Care should be taken that industrial effluents are not released into the water streams and any such incidence should be reported to the concerning authority.Reference:http://www.awwa.org/Advocacy/pressroom/lead.cfm

What The Best Essay Topics on the Mind Is - and What it Is Not

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Family Obligation And Family Values Essay - 2145 Words

Family obligation is strongly related to how much one values their families’ opinions and the degree to which family values are respected and complied with. This degree of familial obligation varies across cultures, in part, due to the different schemas that are represented across cultures. There are two separate classifications for these schemas, collectivistic and individualistic (Triandis, 1988). The majority of people who belong to individualistic cultures have an independent schema while people who are culturally collectivistic have a interdependent schema (Greenfield, 2003). East Asians are generally considered to be interdependent while European American hold a more independent self-schema (Heine, 2001). These distinct cultural types have many distinguishing characteristics that separate individualistic cultures from collectivistic cultures. These different culturally bound norms impact how they view different scenarios and problems and how they respond (Triandis, 2002) . People who are more independent value their personal opinions, while people who are more interdependent value their in-group relationships and opinions (Oyersman, 2002). This directly relates to family obligation and how parenting is implemented in East Asian families versus European American families. European American parents encourage independence and autonomy in their children including attributes such as personal choice, intrinsic motivation, self-esteem and self maximization (Tamis-Lemonda etShow MoreRelatedFamily Dynamics Of Hispanic Families976 Words   |  4 PagesFamily Expectations Familismo. Latino parents expect their children to prioritize family needs over individual needs. Understanding the values within the Latino family is crucial to analyzing family influences on education. Furthermore, understanding Latino cultural values and analyzing how these values either are or aren’t replicated in the high school setting is crucial to understanding the success of the first†generation Latinain and out of high school. Cultural values which define the familyRead MoreHcp Essay842 Words   |  4 Pageshealth or for their family (Ruderman, et al., 2006). Understandingly, the publicly funded healthcare system binds the HCPs into a social contract with the duty to care for the population regardless of their individual rights and freedoms. However, the HCPs rights in time of crisis would be best respected if decision-makers use the Joint Centre of Bioethics’ recommended values; substantive values: duty to provide care, reciprocity, trust, and solidar ity; and procedural values: reasonable, open andRead MoreThe Value Of Filial Piety918 Words   |  4 Pagesten thousand years. With more than five thousand years of traditional culture, China has a formal set of values, beliefs, customs, language, etc., which have been passed generations. Confucianism is the most influential philosophy guiding Chinese people living in different centuries. The Confucian-based values including harmony, filial piety, and obligation help shape my personality. The value of harmony: Confucianism emphasizes the importance of building harmonious relationships with others to makeRead MoreI Hear The Word Ethics1468 Words   |  6 PagesWhen I hear the word ethics I think of different values, and standards you must live by. According to Webster, ethics is â€Å"the discipline dealing with what is good and bad and with moral duty and obligation. † The situations and challenges that I am going to discuss can be seen as doing the right thing because it is my duty and obligation or it can be seen as doing the right thing because it is the right thing to do in order to better myself in the long haul. Everyday I am faced with challenges thatRead MoreThe Role of Judaism in Family Relationships: Article Analysis1235 Words   |  5 PagesJudaism in Family Relationships. Introduction: According to Aliza Krieger, author of the article titled The Role of Judaism in Family Relationships, because Judaism plays an important role in a Jewish persons identity, Judaism should be incorporated into family-based therapy. Judaism itself is more than just a persons religious beliefs, it is also part of a Jewish persons ethnicity and culture as well. And because Judaism plays an important role in family life, a Jewish family is oftenRead MoreBend It Like Beckham Analysis1172 Words   |  5 PagesFamily unites and brings people together. It chains people down with rules and regulations, caging them in with familial obligations. While most would not complain or fight against being molded into their parents’ desires, some stray away from these influences, abandoning these duties to discover their own happiness. In the production Bend It Like Beckham, the protagonist, Jess, struggles with the reason why it is important to abandon family obligations when it conflicts with o ne’s personal desiresRead MoreAnalysis Of The Book The 3 Questions For A Frantic Family By Patrick Lencioni1446 Words   |  6 Pagesto run your most important organization, your family. If we used these methods we could create many more memorable moments in our family lives. 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This mostly because the way the family unit is viewed in thisRead MoreFamily Obligations And Their Roles945 Words   |  4 PagesFamily Obligations and Their Roles in Medea and Force Majeure Maternal and paternal instinct drive many family obligations, one major obligation being caring for your children and making sure that they survive. This one theme is tested in both Force Majeure and Medea and if it wasn’t, there would be no driving plot to either works. In Force Majeure, Ebba and Tomas’ relationship strains are created as a result of Tomas abandoning his family during the avalanche that happens. As a parent, one isRead MoreNursing Code Of Ethics, Personal And Societal Values, And The Legal Aspects Of The Nursing1251 Words   |  6 Pagesand support the diverse needs of the patient and their family. Every nurse, regardless of his or her specialty, encounters ethical challenges. 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